buy custom Fetal Development, Sickness Disorders essay

buy custom Fetal Development, Sickness Disorders essay Fetal Development Fetal development is the progressive development that occurs between the fertilization of an egg to the birth of a baby sometimes illustrated in general periods of trimester. The first trimester is the initial 12 weeks; second trimester weeks begin from week 13 through week 27; and third trimester begins from week 28 to week 40. The first trimester is an important time of development when all the organ systems of the body are shaping and becoming functional. Cells in the embryo travel to major developmental positions, forming the human being as it takes on a human appearance. On the contrary, the second and third trimesters are phases of growth and enhancement of the organ system. First Trimester During the first trimester, during the 1st to the 12th week, nearly all the embryos physiological systems and body parts start to form. During the 1st day, fertilization takes places, as all human chromosomes are present; distinctive human life commences. From the 1st to the 5th day, the embryo starts an implantation in the uterus; it is about 0.6 centimeter long. By this time, three cell layers have formed: the ectoderm (outer layer), from which sense organs, nervous system, and the skin will grow; the mesoderm (middle layer), from which the excretory, circulatory, and muscular systems will form; and the endoderm (inner layer), from which the lungs, glandular systems and digestive system will develop. During the 22nd day, the heart starts to beat with the childs blood type different from the mothers. In the 3rd week, the childs nervous system and backbone spinal column form. During this period, the embryos intestines, kidneys and liver, start to take shape. By the close of the 4th w eek, the child is ten thousand times bigger than the fertilized egg. During the 5th week, hands, legs, and eyes start to develop. In the 6th week, brain waves are evident; lips and mouth are observable; fingernails start to form. During the 7th week, toes, eyelids and nose take their shape. The baby begins to swim and kick. Within the 8th week,every organ is positioned, bones start to substitute cartilage, and fingerprints start to form. In addition, during the 2nd month the umbilical cord build ups and attaches the embryo to the placenta. By the 8th week the baby can start to hear. This all takes place within the first 2 months of pregnancy, which is referred to as embryonic stage. Throughout the 9th and the 10th week, teeth start to form and the fingernails grow. The baby can turn his head, hiccup and frown. During the 10th and 11th week, the baby can inhale amniotic fluid and urinate. In the 11th week, all organ systems are operational. The embryo has a digestive and a central nervous system along with a skeletal structure. The final week of first trimester, 12th week; the fetus has all parts required to experience pain, counting thalamus, nerves and spinal cord. Vocal cords are whole and the fetus can suck its thumb (Scott Fong, 2009, p. 425). The Second Trimester During the 15th week, the baby has an adult's taste buds. During the 4th month, the first month of the second trimester, the utmost amount of fetal growth occurs. Bone marrow starts to form and the heart pumps 25 quarts of blood daily. By the end of the 4th month, the baby grows by 8 to10 inches long and weighs equal to half a pound, the lower body is progressively more larger and the head is now 1/3 the length of the body. The fetus can move, this movement is referred to as quickening, and is sensed by the mother. In the 17th week,the fetus may experiene dream (REM) sleep. During the 20th week, the fetus identifies its' mothers voice. In the 5th month which is the central point of the pregnancy, the fetus weighs about 1 pound and is almost 12 inches long. It sleeps and wakes and has a preferred body position. Within the 5th and the 6th month,the fetus tries to breath by inhaling amniotic fluid into its growing lungs. The fetus will take hold at the umbilical cord when it senses it. The fetus is now twelve inches long or more, and weighs up to one and a half pounds. During the 6th month, the fetus grows to about 2 inches long and adds another pound. The fetus is currently twelve inches long or more, and weighs equal to one and a half pounds. By this period, the fetuss eyes are shaped and sensitive to light. Moreover, the fetus can hear uterine sounds. The skin is wrinkled and covered with fine hair. By the end of this trimester, modification of body features have transpired, movement is stronger, and additional growth has been attained (Scott and Fong, 2009, p. 425). The Third Trimester During the period of the third trimester, the baby poses itself more or less for birth. As a fat layer is laid beneath the skin, the fetus retains a baby like form. During the 7th to the 9th month,the baby uses four of the five senses, namely, sight, touch, taste and sound. Antibodies are developed and the baby's heart starts to pump 300 gallons of blood daily. By the end of the 8 month, the fetus weighs approximately 5 pounds and 4 ounces and is about 20 inches long. During the 8th and the 9th month, skin redness decreases and wrinkles start to vanish as the fetus starts to gain about 11/2 pound a week. The nails reach the end of the fingers and toes and the fetus movements become limited because of its firm fit in the uterus. As birth becomes forthcoming, in the 38th to 40th week, the head is 60 per cent of its complete size, the fine body hair has vanished, and the skin becomes smoother and is now enclosed with a waxy protective substance called the vernix caseosa. During this last trimester, the fetus attains a weight and size that prepare it to live separately from the mother. Roughly 1 week before the birth the fetus discontinues growing, and the most common fetal position now is head down into the pelvic cavity. The baby is prepared for delivery and birth (Scott and Fong, 2009, p. 425). Morning Sickness Morning sickness, also referred to as nausea gravidarum, pregnancy sickness or nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP), is a pregnancy symptom that affects approximately 50 and 80 percent of the pregnant women. It occurs mainly in the first trimester, when the fetus is most vulnerable to toxins, micro-organisms and parasites. Nausea and vomiting can be one of the foremost signs of pregnancy and generally starts around the 6th week of pregnancy and ends around the 12th week of pregnancy. It occurs at any time of the day but worsens in the morning since there is no food in the stomach. Morning Sickness as a Defense Mechanism Morning sickness is believed to be a trait that decreases ingestion of noxious agents, for instance toxins and pathogens, and thus protects the developing embryo and the expectant mother. Such noxious agents are inclined to be hazardous or indicators of hazardous substances within the food. Nausea occurs when a pregnant woman reacts to the smell or taste of secondary compounds that may as a result cause the evasion of avoidance or regurgitation of microbial and toxin-laden contaminated foods. Fetal harm during the first trimester of pregnancy could have marked consequence, such as causing damage to minute number of cells during the fetus early development. This may result to considerable damage to organs or tissues that build up from those cells, causing miscarriages or birrth defects. Heightened nausea in reaction to secondary chemicals in food may protect developing embryo and fetus from such harm. This hypothesis is supported by the timing of symptoms during pregnancy and decreased risks of miscarriage among women experiencing morning sickness. This hypothesis speculates that morning sickness acts as a defense mechanism by helping pregnant women to avoid consumption of certain substances including coffee, tobacco, and alcohol that could be detrimental to the developing fetus. Moreover, during this period, pregnant women have a high dislike of fish, poultry, and eggs, as well as fatty and fried foods. They also tend to prefer bland foods and dislike spicy and pungent foods, which have a high quantity of toxic compounds. In light of this, scientists have found that animal products could be risky to an expectant mother and the embryo, possibly because these products have pesticides, parasites, and other disease-causing organisms. The dislike during pregnancy for animal-originated food is believed to have protected pregnant women and their unborn babies for hundreds of generations. Hence, the pregnant mother has hormonally triggered mechanisms that influence her food choices with the intention of protecting the young fetus from toxins, and these mechanisms are active during the time the fetus is most at risk. These feeding and sickness mechanisms are stopped throughout the second and third trimester when the nutritional requirements of the fetus become bigger and the mother requires nutrients to maintain them both. Morning sickness is also attributed to the increase of progesterone and estrogen which irritate the stomach lining. Hence, morning sickness has permitted more fetuses to crossover healthily until delivery and birth. Congenital Disorders A congenital disorder is a birth defect and disease that begins at conception or in the early phase of pregnancy. Congenital disorders differ widely in symptoms and abnormalities. The global incidence of congenital disorders is estimated have contributed to a high rate infant deaths in U.S. and around the globe. Congenital disorders account to a large percentage of the health problems observed in infants and children (Ebnezar Johari, 2010, p. 487). Discussion Congenital disorders may possibly be caused by genetic or environmental factors. Majority of the causes are unknown or may be caused by the multifaceted interaction between genetic, non-genetic and environmental factors, identified as multifactorial. Other congenital defects may be caused by recognized environmental exposures for instance, intake of drugs, viruses, environmental pollution, maternal addiction with tobacco, alcohol or smoking, x-ray exposure during pregnancy, anomalous intrauterine environment , and maternal diseases for example diabetes. Moreover, some congenital disorders are inherited through the genes in the ovum or sperm. The disorder may be connected to chromosomal abnormalities, single gene disorders or polygenic inheritance. Gestational and acquired congenital disorders of the newborn are present at birth and are caused by prenatal and perinatal harm as a result of birth trauma, maternal infection, maternal disorders or disease, substance use, or abnormalities related to pregnancy. Roughly 2 percent of all newborns born have a major malfunction. These disorders affect the skeletal, central nervous, cardiovascular, genitourinary and gastrointestinal systems. Defects such as cleft lip, cleft palate and severe neural tube defects are apparent at birth, but others may be realized only after a full physical examination. Congenital disorders, which report for more than 20 percent of infant deaths, are preventable in many occurrences. Some disorders, for example, hemophilia, Down syndrome and Tay-Sachs disease have a recognized genetic basis and can be prevented by prenatal diagnosis and/or genetic screening. Prevention of congenital disorders must be attained by particular attention to environmental factors rather than by endeavoring to improve heredity. Buy custom Fetal Development, Sickness & Disorders essay

How to Use Linking Language in Written English

How to Use Linking Language in Written English Once you have mastered the basics of correct usage in written English, you will want to express yourself in increasingly complex ways. One of the best ways to improve your writing style is to use linking language. Linking language refers to sentence connectors used to express relationships between ideas and to combine sentences; the use of these connectors will add sophistication to your writing style. Each section below contains linking language using similar sentences to show how the same idea can be expressed in a variety of manners. Once you have understood the use of these sentence connectors, take an example sentence of your own and write a number of sentences based on the examples to practice your own writing skills. Some Examples of Sentence Connectors The best way to understand the functionality of sentence connectors is to see examples of their usage in everyday situations. Take, for instance, that you want to combine the following two sentences: Food and drink prices in New York are very high and Renting an apartment in New York is very expensive. One could use the sentence connectors semicolon and the word furthermore to combine the two to form one cohesive sentence: Food and drink prices in New York are very high; furthermore, renting an apartment is very expensive. Another example, this time keeping the meaning of both sentences but linking them together to form a cohesive idea related to both: Life in New York is very expensive.Life in New York can be extremely exciting. Example: Despite the fact that life in New York is very expensive, it can be extremely exciting   And in this example, one can form conclusions as part of a sentence connector to emphasize a cause and effect relationship between two sentences: Life in New York is very expensive.Many people would love to live in New York. Example: Many people would love to live in New York; consequently, life in New York is very expensive. In any of these cases, sentence connectors serve to shorten writing and make a writers point more concise and easy to understand. Sentence connectors additionally help the pace and flow of a piece of writing feel more natural and fluid. When Not to Use Sentence Connectors Its not always appropriate to use sentence connectors or to link sentences at all, especially if the rest of the writing is already weighty with complex sentence structures. Sometimes, simplicity is key to get a point across. Another instance of a time not to use sentence connectors is when combining sentences could force an assumption on the reader or render the new sentence inaccurate. Take for instance writing an essay on the cause-effect relationship between human energy consumption and global warming, while you may be able to say human have burned more fossil fuels in the last century than ever before; ​consequentially, the global temperature has risen, it may not be entirely accurate given the readers interpretation of that statement without context clues.

Community Policing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Community Policing - Research Paper Example Over time this relationship eroded away and the policing strategy moved over to a reformation era which further gave rise to a community problem solving era after the 1960s (Kelling & Moore, 2015) However the role of politics in policing is still undefined in times of uncertainty. This role has changed over time but the affiliation of political powers to that of policing powers can never be negated. This policing power can be easily misused by the politicians if they are given the opportunity. A political era marks the history of the policing department and this should always be kept in mind when implementing new strategies for the police department. This essay would revolve around the issue of political involvement in the policing of the United States. In order to gain an understanding on the topic of politics and police, it becomes necessary to review the order of policing and political affiliations at first. Currently, three systems dominated in the United States namely Legislative, Executive and Judicial. These systems work in a symbiotic environment to help each other and the Police belong to the Executive system. Police however is under constant scrutiny by the judicial system which works as an auditor for the policing powers. The police agencies working under the United States are usually seen at a local level and the head of the police at this local level needs to understand the political background of the place that he is operating in. It is necessary for the policing staff to understand this political background and act in a manner that does not violate the rules set down by the system of the country. The city is mainly under the power of some stakeholders that represent the whole region and this includes the mayor, the c ity manager and the police commissioner. The complex tasks of politics set in when the police has to be answerable to all of them in accordance to

Intelligent Buildings Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Intelligent Buildings - Assignment Example There is another aspect, however, to the design of the modern structure which today is discussed in terms of its use and how well humans who occupy it feel about it from a sensory perspective. From much of what has been written, the modern view of design must adhere as much to its function and it does its aesthetic appearance and usefulness in offering itself as a pleasing place to be. The intelligent building then must be a ‘multi-sensory experience’ (Clements-Croome, 2004, p. 58). We do not 'see' or perceive our environment only with the eyes, but with all senses. It is the job of the architect to acquiesce to those senses and create building designs that are more than warehouses—buildings that encourage from its occupants an emotional and natural interpretation of their environment through the interactive workings of the senses. The Multi-Sensory Perspective While speaking of aesthetics in architecture it is interesting to note that while the term technically a pplies to visual pleasure, in our field we are also speaking about the senses-- auditory, tactile, olfactory, thermal, and even kinesthetic. And while current thinking today favours a holistic or multi-disciplinary approach to building design, the same applies to the multi-sensory approach to design that in the end most affects the building’s occupants or users as well as those who view it. There are examples of this in many older buildings. ‘The delicate composition of the architectural elements in the Residence of the Middelheimpark, in Antwerp...creates an intensely poetical effect: a single tone, white, brings about a wide range of greys and creates optically intriguing effects’ (Farmer & Louw 1993, p. 320). So when the term aesthetics is used it is predominantly referring to the goal of an all-around positive aesthetic experience through all of the senses, often occurring in esoteric ways that must be carefully considered in the design process. Hands and ski n feel texture as pleasing or not; visionary sense elicits other sensory reactions; odours, as we have all experienced, may illicit memories of events and times, such as cooking smells make us think of our mothers’ kitchens. As Clements-Croons (2004: 63) found, ‘The human senses are extraordinarily sensitive, and it is through them that we experience life wherever we are’. From a psychological and spiritual perspective, it can not be emphasized too strongly that people, through their senses. need the stimulation of a pleasing well-considered environment. Buildings, viewed in a philosophical context then provide a high level of stimulation—stimulation that not only presents a pleasing result but a spiritually uplifting one metaphorically similar to those experienced in nature. This animation of the architectural experience is not unlike the lift of spirit one experiences through the senses when viewing a good piece of art. As a necessary life element, such experiences are crucial and as such sensory architectural details ‘should always be given high priority’ (Clements-Croons 2004, p. 58). Space, Sensory Perception and the Human Psyche In the words of filmmaker Murray Grigor, ‘To comprehend architecture, one needs to move through its spaces. After all, that’s how we all experience buildings, inside and outside: we walk,

Human Facial Expressions and Emotions Essay Example for Free

Human Facial Expressions and Emotions Essay To accept that the implications of human emotions are universal is indeed very extensive. It speaks to an issue that is deeply entrenched in human nature and it is by no means a trivial question. Much research has been conducted in this field of emotions through the analysis of facial expressions, categorizing evidence into two primary categories: those in favor of the universality of emotions, known as the Universality thesis, or those in favor of cultural influence on emotions. While it has been largely accepted that there is a basic universal language in the field, the bulk of the debate centers on where exactly factors controlling expression of facial expressions lie on this spectrum. There is undeniably overwhelming evidence in support of the universality thesis with both qualitative (judgment studies) and quantitative (muscle unit measurements and brain mapping techniques) data; however, one could not overlook the behavioral and anatomical evidence in favor of culture-specific expressions. Therefore, universal emotions may serve as a very fundamental framework among all humans; yet, it is cultural differences that fine-tune this structure into the emotions each individual expresses. Introduction to Universality Thesis: The Darwinian Hypothesis Principles for the Expression of Emotions The Work of Charles Darwin. Many of the ideas that Darwin formulated in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals have led to this field of research. On the book’s most basic level, he defended that emotion expressions are evolved and adaptive (Hess Thibault, 2009). However, Darwin also posits three crucial principles from which many of the subsequent fundamental questions and debate over emotions and their purpose stem. The Principle of Serviceable Habits. As Hess and Thibault (2009) note, this first principle takes a Lamarckian view of the inheritance of emotions genetically through the force of habits. Darwin explicitly underscores the concept and force of habit. It also speaks very much to the functionality of emotions and their expressions, although most of them are vestigial. However, these traits could still be observed in animals because the civilization of humans would suppress such instinctual tendencies. A common example is that of rage and aggression as a â€Å"playful sneer† or â€Å"ferocious snarl† (Darwin, 1872) reveals animal descent. The Principle of Antithesis. In a reversal of the first principle, the second principle asserts that some expressions are so directly opposite to nature that the only means is that of expressive communication (Darwin 1872). This makes the expression almost analogous to the voice for the purpose of intercommunication. It is worth noting, however, the Darwin extends this principle to not only states, but to traits as well (Hess Thibault, 2009). For instance, Darwin (1872) postulates that the enigmatic action of a gaping mouth could indicate a feebleness of character. Such actions eventually become ingrained through habit. The Principle of the Direct Action of the Excited Nervous System on the Body.  This final principle that Darwin outlines could be considered the direct product of the nervous system. Therefore, some expressions occur to balance excess emotions. For instance, consider the absurd nature of laughter (Hess Thibault, 2009). Heckler (1873) proposed that laughter could in fact be a protective reflex that compromises the excess of the circulatory and respiratory systems through the irritation of vasomotor nerves. The work of Darwin and universality thesis will later by revived in the late 19 60s and early 1970s by the judgments studies of Paul Ekman. Evidence in Support of Universality Evidence derived from Judgment Studies Introduction. The universality thesis is most contingent upon judgment data, evidence of observers seeing the same emotions in all faces (Russell, 1994). Paul Ekman is largely considered to be the pioneer and preeminent scholar in the field of emotions, and his judgment studies with overwhelming evidence supporting the universality of facial expressions are frequently cited in subsequent studies on this topic. The earlier view before studies conducted by Ekman and Friesen from the late 1960s was that facial expressions completely differed from culture to culture (La Barre, 1947). With Ekman and Friesen’s groundbreaking work on the constancy of facial expressions throughout cultures in 1971, however, the tremendous evidence has persuaded much of the psychology world to accept the universality thesis although skeptics still remain (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Pan-cultural udgment studies. Among the first of these pan-cultural judgment studies was conducted by Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen (1969) in New Guinea, Borneo, Brazil, the United States, and Japan where they found evidence in favor of pan-cultural elements in facial displays; observers in these cultures were able to recognize similar emotions in the a standard set of photographs. They first obtained samples of photographed facial expressions that were free of cultural differences. The subjects, too, were carefully selected as data needed to be collected from virtually isolated preliterate societies to eliminate the variable of mass media (Ekman et al. , 1969). Photographs of Caucasians—male and female, adult and children—were used, all of whom were professional and amateur actors. The observers observed primarily the preliterate societies from New Guinea and Borneo, two isolated communities that required translators. 1] The emotion Happy (H) was most universally recognized with tremendous accuracy in responses—United States: 97 H; Brazil: 97 H; Japan: 87 H; New Guinea: 99 H (Pidgin) and 82 H (Fore); and Borneo: 92 H. Fear (F), however, seem to generate a more varied response between different cultures, with Surprise (SU) and Anger (A) as answers as well—United States: 88 F; Japan: 71 F, 26 SU; New Guinea: 46 F, 31 A (Pidgin) and 54 F, 25 A (Fore); Borneo: 40 F, 33 SU. There were also variations within Disgust-Contempt (D) with some mixtures of A and in the Borneo society, even H; A included some D and F; SU included F and A, which these variations occurring primarily in the isolated societies; and finally, Sadness (SA) was sometimes interpreted as A, with A being the only given response in the Fore group of New Guinea. While there is certainly evidence for some basic universality, Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen attributed the discrepancies to language barriers and task unfamiliarity in the illiterate societies. Flaws and how they were subsequently addressed. Ekman and Friesen (1987) later published a study in which they acknowledge some flaws of previous judgment studies. With respect to the study above, three problems that limited them are: (1) there has only been one such study, (2) not all six emotions were accurately recognized, and (3) the facial expressions were posed as opposed to spontaneous (Ekman Friesen, 1987). In response to the last criticism, Ekman and Friesen (1972) designed a study of facial expressions shown by Japanese and Americans while watching stress-inducing films of body mutilation and neutral films of natural andscape. When subjects from each of the two cultures viewed the films in the absence of a scientist with a hidden video camera, the facial expressions from both groups were virtually identical; when viewing the same films in the presence of a scientist, however, the Japanese tended to mask negative expressions with smile, lending support to the presence of cultural display rules when different cultures man age and mask universal expressions. The primary criticism, however, was (1) again, there has only been one such study, and (2) the films only elicit two emotions (disgust and fear)—other universal expressions were not determined for (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Later studies, however, involving photographs of facial expressions shown to observers of across 12 literature cultures found very high agreement by multiple researchers including Ekman, Friesen, Sorenson, and Izard (Ekman et at. , 1969; Izard, 1971). The multiple replications of this design lends to its credibility (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Universality of the recognizing intensity. Ekman and Friesen (1987) sought to further extend their basic judgment studies by testing for four different hypotheses of cross-cultural agreement for (1) single-choice judgment tasks; (2) the strongest emotion; (3) the second strongest emotion; and (4) strength of emotion. The nations that were chosen included 8 different languages from both Western and non-Western countries. In (1), the single-choice judgment task that replicated previous studies, once again, produced accurate results in terms of the percentage of subjects in a country correctly identifying with a predicted emotion. For instance, two examples include Happiness, in which the percentage ranged from 98% (Scotland) to 69% (Sumatra); for Surprise, 94% (Japan) to 78% (Sumatra), while Sadness, ranged from 92% (U. S. ) to 76% (Turkey). Overall, the emotional term chosen by the majority of the subjects in each culture was accurate 178 out of 180 times. Hypothesis (2) was also supported: 177 out of 180 times, the emotion that was judged to be the most prominent by the majority of each culture was also the predicted emotion. Hypothesis (3), which predicted the universality of the secondary emotion, was sustained as well: in every culture, there was complete agreement about the secondary emotion signaled by expressions of disgust and fear. The results for sadness and surprise, however, were too infrequent to be conclusive (5 out of 30 opportunities and 8 out of 30 respectively). Further research needs to be conducted to determine the cause for this discrepancy (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Hypothesis (4) required subjects to judge the intensity of emotions on an 8-point scale (1-slight, 4-moderate, 8-strong) to predict the universality of judging. This, according to Ekman and Friesen (1987) however, led to inconclusive results. Using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), F(54,2743)=3. 95, signifies a moderate association between culture and intensity judgments. However, instead, the six univariate tests ranged from 2. 3 in Sadness to 6. 66 in Surprise, indicating that there are significant differences among cultures in this respect. These differences, according, to Ekman and Friesen, could have 2 possibilities: (1) politeness and a greater uncertainty about a foreigner or (2) the language barrier, as observers had make judgments in language other than English (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Nevertheless, with three of these hypotheses confirmed, the evidence for universal facial expressions is undeniably overwhelming despite these flaws. Evidence based on Facial Action Coding System (FACS) and Action Units Introduction. Based on the evidence for the presence of six basic emotions across cultures,—happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust and surprise—qualitative descriptions of facial muscles associated with each of them have been identified. For instance, happy expressions include tense lower eyelids, raised cheeks and lip corners pulled up, while sad expressions include inner eyebrows raised and drawn together, and lip corners pulled down (Kohler et al. 2004). Based on such observations, Ekman and Friesen (1978) developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) by identifying the presence of action units (AU). They serve as the standard set of facial expressions. Target AUs in universal emotions. Kohler et al (2004) sought to identify which AUs characterized the four universal emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. A total of 128 images of emotional expressions were used in a sample of 105 sub jects from Drexel University. Of these subjects, 63 were men and 42 were women. There were also 71 Caucasian, 9 Africa-American, 4 Hispanic/Latino, and 21 Asian-American participants, indicating ethnic diversity. They were then asked whether each facial expression matched the target emotion. FACS ratings revealed that uniquely absent and present AUs were found for each emotion (Kohler et al, 2004). In Happy, the presence of AU 6, 7, and 26 was ositively associated with happy recognition, and determined that the presence of 6 increased recognition four times; in Sad, AU 4, 17, and 25 were positively while 15 was negatively associated; in Anger, AU 4, 5, and 16 were positively while 23 was negatively associated[2]; and in Fear, AU 5, 1, and 26 were positively while 4 was negatively associated. By defining expressions quantitatively with unique muscle patterns over a diverse subject group, the universality thesis is further strengthened. The 2004 Athens Olympics Game. Psychologist David Matsmoto[3] (2006) conducted a field behavioral study of the facial expressions displayed by medal winners of the judo competition during the 2004 Athens Olympics Games using F F ACS. With judo photographer Bob Willingham, they captured the spontaneous reactions of 84 medal winners from 35 different countries—the most diverse ethnic group in a spontaneously intense emotional field study—at 3 different times: (1) when they completed the match, (2) when they received their medals from the dignitary, and (3) when they posed on the podium. Matsumoto (2006) found that independent of cultural backgrounds, there are very specific facial expressions that occur in emotionally-charged contexts. This study was designed in response to some criticisms of judgments studies and previous field studies conducted in other sporting events including bowling and soccer (Kraut Johnson, 1979; Ruiz-Belda et al. , 2003). A crucial concern about judgments studies held in laboratories is their posed stimuli and artificial nature because they lack the investigation of the expression within a social context (Matsumoto, 2006). While later field studies were conducted in order to address this concern, there were three flaws that Matsumoto (2006) in turn addresses. The first two are the strength of the elicited emotional response—a factor that is not intense enough with bowling spares and strikes—and the time allowed for expressions to unfold. The third and most important aspect of the study was the type of smile elicited in the social context, something that Kraut and Johnson (1979) had failed to distinguish. Matsumoto determines two types of smiles: the Duchenne smile and the non-Duchenne smile; the former is associated with enjoyment and the latter is associated with pleasantry or social convenience even though the person does not feel positive emotions. While Ruiz-Belda et al (2003) uses the FACS, which detects the muscle movements associated with these smiles, they were not differentiated. In order to isolate photos or victory, Willingham took pictures from the gold and bronze matches (Matsumoto, 2006), the most emotionally intense matches as they both occur at the margin; the former wins the first place while the latter made the cut for a medal. Negative emotions of defeat were searched for in silver medal winners and athletes who placed fifth. Again, as aforementioned, it is important to distinguish the timing of emotions, as the first expressions upon completing a match are often the most instinctual and natural ones. Thirteen out of 14 gold medalists and 18 out of 16 bronze medalists smiled for a total of 31 smiles; of those 31 smiles, 29 were Duchenne and 24 were open-mouthed. In the defeat silver medalists, none smiled and 1 of the 26 fifth placers smiled. Instead, 43% of silver medalists and 35% of fifth placers showed sadness, 29% and 23% showed nothing (respectively), and 14% and 15% showed contempt (again, respectively). Upon receiving the medal, which is a much more public event than initial expressions, 54 of the 56 athletes smiled. All 14 gold medalists (12 open-mouthed), 6 silver medalists (out of the 14), and 20 bronze medalists (out of 28) had Duchenne smiles. Cultural differences were tested for, but none were found. In the final situation, the most public of the three, the athletes’ expressions were taken on the podium. Again, all the gold medalists smiled; only 9 silver medalists of the 14 smiled (only 5 of these were uncontrolled, of which 3 were controlled Duchenne); and 26 bronze medalists of the 28 smiled (13 of which were open-mouthed and Duchenne). Interestingly in this last scenario, cultural differences was evident: gold and bronze medalists from North America-Western Europe and East Asia were much more prone to displaying Duchenne smiles (96%) as opposed to gold and bronze medalists from other countries (47%). This study of facial expressions further reinforces the notion of universal emotions. Because no other emotion other than the Duchenne smile was prominent in these expressions of victory, the data suggests that it may be the only facial marker of the joy of victory (Matsumoto, 2006). Matsumoto then proposed an evolutionary reason why this may be the case along the lines of behavioral ecology: facial expressions provide rapid means of communication, and it may not have been absolutely adaptively necessary to communicate various emotions of enjoyment. However, while this last point is highly speculative, the data that Matsumoto provides for universal facial expressions, which were displayed most prominently in more private settings but still detectable in more public ones using FACS, is very thorough and convincing.

Analysis of Spring In War Time by Edith Nesbit :: essays research papers

Spring In War-Time by Edith Nesbit is a very moving poem. It describes nature in such a beautiful way, and then goes on to say how, to her, it is not beautiful anymore. She writes about her loss by saying things such as Where last year we used to go Where we shall not go again. Nesbit explains how she and her partner used to do lovely things together like go on walks in the woods and enjoy the nature. Her partner sadly died in the war, and since then, she can not appreciate nature's beauty anymore. Life seems to have stopped for her but in reality, life goes on. Just like last year's violets, too, But they have no scent this year. She is a casualty of the war, not physically, but mentally. She is wounded emotionally by the loss of her loved one. This poem is set out like a nursery rhyme, its message is simple. The message reads that, in her eyes, war has ruined everything that used to be beautiful. War is unnatural and cruel, completely the opposite of nature. Spring In War-Time reflects on the memories she had with her partner. It shows how they can never do things which they used to because war has taken him away, tearing them apart forever. It's obvious it is going to take Nesbit a long time to let it go, if not never. All on the verses have four stresses per line, with a rhythm and a rhyme, except for the last verse. Presently red roses blown Will make all the garden gay? Not yet have the daisies grown On your clay. This last verse just stops. Without warning, it just finishes and you are left thinking, "Oh..." It is short and it leaves the poem sounding slightly un-finished, like Nesbit?s life with her partner. It stops suddenly like his death, his death was sudden. This last verse tells us that he has only recently died in the war and been buried, becoming part of nature, not just an observer of it. Nesbit has all her memories of him to hold onto mentally, but physically all she has is his gravestone and maybe a few photos.

Human Cognitive Development Essay

The paper is designed to discuss human cognitive development through the prism of various perspectives. Apriori, developmental psychology is nowadays dominated by Piaget’s views, so the essay provides a detailed examination of his theory, including it basic assumptions, the connection between human physiology and cognitive development and the four stages of progress of cognitive abilities: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. Beyond the major focus, the essay also discusses four alternative approaches to cognitive development, including relevant research, conducted by the founders and followers of rational-constructivist, social learning, information-processing and sociocultural perspectives and the differences between traditional Piagetian views and these alternative positions. The author uses three articles from different psychology-oriented journals: â€Å"Personal cognitive development and its implications for teaching and learning† be Ferrari and Mahalingam (1998), â€Å"Commentary on Vygotsky† by Jean Piaget (2000) and the article, written almost immediately after the emergence of Piaget’s stage theory – â€Å"The development of formal operations in logical and moral judgment† by Kuhn, Langer, Kohlberg, and Haan. Developmental psychology is a vast area of knowledge that seeks to explore and explain various aspects of human psychosocial development, including its moral, emotional and cognitive components (Ferrari and Mahalingam, 1998). Cognitive development refers to the development of human intellect, abstractive, critical and creative thinking that provide successful cognition and comprehension of the world of objects. The most prominent and popular theory of human cognitive development was created by Jean Piaget, whose approach to the progress in this context is constructivist, so that the scholar views the construction of cognitive abilities as self-motivated action (Piaget, 2000). As Kuhn et al (1977) assume, â€Å"Piaget’s research methods are based primarily on case studies [they were descriptive]. While some of his ideas are supported through more correlational and experimental methodologies, others are not. For example, Piaget believes that biological development drives the movement from one cognitive stage to the next† (Kuhn et al, 1977, p. 98). Nevertheless, although Piaget’s investigation basically refers to physiology rather than psychology, the scholar manages to link biological and cognitive progress through the description of the transformation of reflexes into formal operations. Initially, he describes two major processes that occur in individual when adapting to the environment: assimilation and accommodation. Both of them condition the complication of their manner of adaptation and therefore determine cognitive development (Piaget, 2000). Accommodation refers to the alteration of cognitive abilities in response to the requirements of the environment for the purpose of gaining something from the surrounding world. Assimilation, in turn, refers to the transformation of the environment with further placing it into preexisting cognitive schemes and constructs (Piaget, 2000). Due to the fact that life situation and the corresponding requirements from the environment tend to complicate through the life course, the individual is forced to respond to complex stimuli and construct hierarchical cognitive structures (for instance, from general to concrete) (Piaget, 2000; Ferrari and Mahalingam, 1998). Piaget distinguishes and describes four stages of cognitive development. Sensorimotor stage, or infancy lasts from the birth to 2 years, has six sub-stages, associated with gradual development of reflexes, focus of vision and coordination in movements. Intelligence is manifested through the progress in motor activity, but the individual uses no social symbols (e. g. language) during this period. The exploration of world is very dynamic, but the related knowledge remains limited because of the weak cognitive abilities. The outcomes of this stage are the emergence of basic creativity or insight (understanding of pictures and language) as well as the progress of symbolic abilities (Piaget, 2000).