buy custom Fetal Development, Sickness Disorders essay

buy custom Fetal Development, Sickness Disorders essay Fetal Development Fetal development is the progressive development that occurs between the fertilization of an egg to the birth of a baby sometimes illustrated in general periods of trimester. The first trimester is the initial 12 weeks; second trimester weeks begin from week 13 through week 27; and third trimester begins from week 28 to week 40. The first trimester is an important time of development when all the organ systems of the body are shaping and becoming functional. Cells in the embryo travel to major developmental positions, forming the human being as it takes on a human appearance. On the contrary, the second and third trimesters are phases of growth and enhancement of the organ system. First Trimester During the first trimester, during the 1st to the 12th week, nearly all the embryos physiological systems and body parts start to form. During the 1st day, fertilization takes places, as all human chromosomes are present; distinctive human life commences. From the 1st to the 5th day, the embryo starts an implantation in the uterus; it is about 0.6 centimeter long. By this time, three cell layers have formed: the ectoderm (outer layer), from which sense organs, nervous system, and the skin will grow; the mesoderm (middle layer), from which the excretory, circulatory, and muscular systems will form; and the endoderm (inner layer), from which the lungs, glandular systems and digestive system will develop. During the 22nd day, the heart starts to beat with the childs blood type different from the mothers. In the 3rd week, the childs nervous system and backbone spinal column form. During this period, the embryos intestines, kidneys and liver, start to take shape. By the close of the 4th w eek, the child is ten thousand times bigger than the fertilized egg. During the 5th week, hands, legs, and eyes start to develop. In the 6th week, brain waves are evident; lips and mouth are observable; fingernails start to form. During the 7th week, toes, eyelids and nose take their shape. The baby begins to swim and kick. Within the 8th week,every organ is positioned, bones start to substitute cartilage, and fingerprints start to form. In addition, during the 2nd month the umbilical cord build ups and attaches the embryo to the placenta. By the 8th week the baby can start to hear. This all takes place within the first 2 months of pregnancy, which is referred to as embryonic stage. Throughout the 9th and the 10th week, teeth start to form and the fingernails grow. The baby can turn his head, hiccup and frown. During the 10th and 11th week, the baby can inhale amniotic fluid and urinate. In the 11th week, all organ systems are operational. The embryo has a digestive and a central nervous system along with a skeletal structure. The final week of first trimester, 12th week; the fetus has all parts required to experience pain, counting thalamus, nerves and spinal cord. Vocal cords are whole and the fetus can suck its thumb (Scott Fong, 2009, p. 425). The Second Trimester During the 15th week, the baby has an adult's taste buds. During the 4th month, the first month of the second trimester, the utmost amount of fetal growth occurs. Bone marrow starts to form and the heart pumps 25 quarts of blood daily. By the end of the 4th month, the baby grows by 8 to10 inches long and weighs equal to half a pound, the lower body is progressively more larger and the head is now 1/3 the length of the body. The fetus can move, this movement is referred to as quickening, and is sensed by the mother. In the 17th week,the fetus may experiene dream (REM) sleep. During the 20th week, the fetus identifies its' mothers voice. In the 5th month which is the central point of the pregnancy, the fetus weighs about 1 pound and is almost 12 inches long. It sleeps and wakes and has a preferred body position. Within the 5th and the 6th month,the fetus tries to breath by inhaling amniotic fluid into its growing lungs. The fetus will take hold at the umbilical cord when it senses it. The fetus is now twelve inches long or more, and weighs up to one and a half pounds. During the 6th month, the fetus grows to about 2 inches long and adds another pound. The fetus is currently twelve inches long or more, and weighs equal to one and a half pounds. By this period, the fetuss eyes are shaped and sensitive to light. Moreover, the fetus can hear uterine sounds. The skin is wrinkled and covered with fine hair. By the end of this trimester, modification of body features have transpired, movement is stronger, and additional growth has been attained (Scott and Fong, 2009, p. 425). The Third Trimester During the period of the third trimester, the baby poses itself more or less for birth. As a fat layer is laid beneath the skin, the fetus retains a baby like form. During the 7th to the 9th month,the baby uses four of the five senses, namely, sight, touch, taste and sound. Antibodies are developed and the baby's heart starts to pump 300 gallons of blood daily. By the end of the 8 month, the fetus weighs approximately 5 pounds and 4 ounces and is about 20 inches long. During the 8th and the 9th month, skin redness decreases and wrinkles start to vanish as the fetus starts to gain about 11/2 pound a week. The nails reach the end of the fingers and toes and the fetus movements become limited because of its firm fit in the uterus. As birth becomes forthcoming, in the 38th to 40th week, the head is 60 per cent of its complete size, the fine body hair has vanished, and the skin becomes smoother and is now enclosed with a waxy protective substance called the vernix caseosa. During this last trimester, the fetus attains a weight and size that prepare it to live separately from the mother. Roughly 1 week before the birth the fetus discontinues growing, and the most common fetal position now is head down into the pelvic cavity. The baby is prepared for delivery and birth (Scott and Fong, 2009, p. 425). Morning Sickness Morning sickness, also referred to as nausea gravidarum, pregnancy sickness or nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP), is a pregnancy symptom that affects approximately 50 and 80 percent of the pregnant women. It occurs mainly in the first trimester, when the fetus is most vulnerable to toxins, micro-organisms and parasites. Nausea and vomiting can be one of the foremost signs of pregnancy and generally starts around the 6th week of pregnancy and ends around the 12th week of pregnancy. It occurs at any time of the day but worsens in the morning since there is no food in the stomach. Morning Sickness as a Defense Mechanism Morning sickness is believed to be a trait that decreases ingestion of noxious agents, for instance toxins and pathogens, and thus protects the developing embryo and the expectant mother. Such noxious agents are inclined to be hazardous or indicators of hazardous substances within the food. Nausea occurs when a pregnant woman reacts to the smell or taste of secondary compounds that may as a result cause the evasion of avoidance or regurgitation of microbial and toxin-laden contaminated foods. Fetal harm during the first trimester of pregnancy could have marked consequence, such as causing damage to minute number of cells during the fetus early development. This may result to considerable damage to organs or tissues that build up from those cells, causing miscarriages or birrth defects. Heightened nausea in reaction to secondary chemicals in food may protect developing embryo and fetus from such harm. This hypothesis is supported by the timing of symptoms during pregnancy and decreased risks of miscarriage among women experiencing morning sickness. This hypothesis speculates that morning sickness acts as a defense mechanism by helping pregnant women to avoid consumption of certain substances including coffee, tobacco, and alcohol that could be detrimental to the developing fetus. Moreover, during this period, pregnant women have a high dislike of fish, poultry, and eggs, as well as fatty and fried foods. They also tend to prefer bland foods and dislike spicy and pungent foods, which have a high quantity of toxic compounds. In light of this, scientists have found that animal products could be risky to an expectant mother and the embryo, possibly because these products have pesticides, parasites, and other disease-causing organisms. The dislike during pregnancy for animal-originated food is believed to have protected pregnant women and their unborn babies for hundreds of generations. Hence, the pregnant mother has hormonally triggered mechanisms that influence her food choices with the intention of protecting the young fetus from toxins, and these mechanisms are active during the time the fetus is most at risk. These feeding and sickness mechanisms are stopped throughout the second and third trimester when the nutritional requirements of the fetus become bigger and the mother requires nutrients to maintain them both. Morning sickness is also attributed to the increase of progesterone and estrogen which irritate the stomach lining. Hence, morning sickness has permitted more fetuses to crossover healthily until delivery and birth. Congenital Disorders A congenital disorder is a birth defect and disease that begins at conception or in the early phase of pregnancy. Congenital disorders differ widely in symptoms and abnormalities. The global incidence of congenital disorders is estimated have contributed to a high rate infant deaths in U.S. and around the globe. Congenital disorders account to a large percentage of the health problems observed in infants and children (Ebnezar Johari, 2010, p. 487). Discussion Congenital disorders may possibly be caused by genetic or environmental factors. Majority of the causes are unknown or may be caused by the multifaceted interaction between genetic, non-genetic and environmental factors, identified as multifactorial. Other congenital defects may be caused by recognized environmental exposures for instance, intake of drugs, viruses, environmental pollution, maternal addiction with tobacco, alcohol or smoking, x-ray exposure during pregnancy, anomalous intrauterine environment , and maternal diseases for example diabetes. Moreover, some congenital disorders are inherited through the genes in the ovum or sperm. The disorder may be connected to chromosomal abnormalities, single gene disorders or polygenic inheritance. Gestational and acquired congenital disorders of the newborn are present at birth and are caused by prenatal and perinatal harm as a result of birth trauma, maternal infection, maternal disorders or disease, substance use, or abnormalities related to pregnancy. Roughly 2 percent of all newborns born have a major malfunction. These disorders affect the skeletal, central nervous, cardiovascular, genitourinary and gastrointestinal systems. Defects such as cleft lip, cleft palate and severe neural tube defects are apparent at birth, but others may be realized only after a full physical examination. Congenital disorders, which report for more than 20 percent of infant deaths, are preventable in many occurrences. Some disorders, for example, hemophilia, Down syndrome and Tay-Sachs disease have a recognized genetic basis and can be prevented by prenatal diagnosis and/or genetic screening. Prevention of congenital disorders must be attained by particular attention to environmental factors rather than by endeavoring to improve heredity. Buy custom Fetal Development, Sickness & Disorders essay

How to Use Linking Language in Written English

How to Use Linking Language in Written English Once you have mastered the basics of correct usage in written English, you will want to express yourself in increasingly complex ways. One of the best ways to improve your writing style is to use linking language. Linking language refers to sentence connectors used to express relationships between ideas and to combine sentences; the use of these connectors will add sophistication to your writing style. Each section below contains linking language using similar sentences to show how the same idea can be expressed in a variety of manners. Once you have understood the use of these sentence connectors, take an example sentence of your own and write a number of sentences based on the examples to practice your own writing skills. Some Examples of Sentence Connectors The best way to understand the functionality of sentence connectors is to see examples of their usage in everyday situations. Take, for instance, that you want to combine the following two sentences: Food and drink prices in New York are very high and Renting an apartment in New York is very expensive. One could use the sentence connectors semicolon and the word furthermore to combine the two to form one cohesive sentence: Food and drink prices in New York are very high; furthermore, renting an apartment is very expensive. Another example, this time keeping the meaning of both sentences but linking them together to form a cohesive idea related to both: Life in New York is very expensive.Life in New York can be extremely exciting. Example: Despite the fact that life in New York is very expensive, it can be extremely exciting   And in this example, one can form conclusions as part of a sentence connector to emphasize a cause and effect relationship between two sentences: Life in New York is very expensive.Many people would love to live in New York. Example: Many people would love to live in New York; consequently, life in New York is very expensive. In any of these cases, sentence connectors serve to shorten writing and make a writers point more concise and easy to understand. Sentence connectors additionally help the pace and flow of a piece of writing feel more natural and fluid. When Not to Use Sentence Connectors Its not always appropriate to use sentence connectors or to link sentences at all, especially if the rest of the writing is already weighty with complex sentence structures. Sometimes, simplicity is key to get a point across. Another instance of a time not to use sentence connectors is when combining sentences could force an assumption on the reader or render the new sentence inaccurate. Take for instance writing an essay on the cause-effect relationship between human energy consumption and global warming, while you may be able to say human have burned more fossil fuels in the last century than ever before; ​consequentially, the global temperature has risen, it may not be entirely accurate given the readers interpretation of that statement without context clues.

Community Policing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Community Policing - Research Paper Example Over time this relationship eroded away and the policing strategy moved over to a reformation era which further gave rise to a community problem solving era after the 1960s (Kelling & Moore, 2015) However the role of politics in policing is still undefined in times of uncertainty. This role has changed over time but the affiliation of political powers to that of policing powers can never be negated. This policing power can be easily misused by the politicians if they are given the opportunity. A political era marks the history of the policing department and this should always be kept in mind when implementing new strategies for the police department. This essay would revolve around the issue of political involvement in the policing of the United States. In order to gain an understanding on the topic of politics and police, it becomes necessary to review the order of policing and political affiliations at first. Currently, three systems dominated in the United States namely Legislative, Executive and Judicial. These systems work in a symbiotic environment to help each other and the Police belong to the Executive system. Police however is under constant scrutiny by the judicial system which works as an auditor for the policing powers. The police agencies working under the United States are usually seen at a local level and the head of the police at this local level needs to understand the political background of the place that he is operating in. It is necessary for the policing staff to understand this political background and act in a manner that does not violate the rules set down by the system of the country. The city is mainly under the power of some stakeholders that represent the whole region and this includes the mayor, the c ity manager and the police commissioner. The complex tasks of politics set in when the police has to be answerable to all of them in accordance to

Intelligent Buildings Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Intelligent Buildings - Assignment Example There is another aspect, however, to the design of the modern structure which today is discussed in terms of its use and how well humans who occupy it feel about it from a sensory perspective. From much of what has been written, the modern view of design must adhere as much to its function and it does its aesthetic appearance and usefulness in offering itself as a pleasing place to be. The intelligent building then must be a ‘multi-sensory experience’ (Clements-Croome, 2004, p. 58). We do not 'see' or perceive our environment only with the eyes, but with all senses. It is the job of the architect to acquiesce to those senses and create building designs that are more than warehouses—buildings that encourage from its occupants an emotional and natural interpretation of their environment through the interactive workings of the senses. The Multi-Sensory Perspective While speaking of aesthetics in architecture it is interesting to note that while the term technically a pplies to visual pleasure, in our field we are also speaking about the senses-- auditory, tactile, olfactory, thermal, and even kinesthetic. And while current thinking today favours a holistic or multi-disciplinary approach to building design, the same applies to the multi-sensory approach to design that in the end most affects the building’s occupants or users as well as those who view it. There are examples of this in many older buildings. ‘The delicate composition of the architectural elements in the Residence of the Middelheimpark, in Antwerp...creates an intensely poetical effect: a single tone, white, brings about a wide range of greys and creates optically intriguing effects’ (Farmer & Louw 1993, p. 320). So when the term aesthetics is used it is predominantly referring to the goal of an all-around positive aesthetic experience through all of the senses, often occurring in esoteric ways that must be carefully considered in the design process. Hands and ski n feel texture as pleasing or not; visionary sense elicits other sensory reactions; odours, as we have all experienced, may illicit memories of events and times, such as cooking smells make us think of our mothers’ kitchens. As Clements-Croons (2004: 63) found, ‘The human senses are extraordinarily sensitive, and it is through them that we experience life wherever we are’. From a psychological and spiritual perspective, it can not be emphasized too strongly that people, through their senses. need the stimulation of a pleasing well-considered environment. Buildings, viewed in a philosophical context then provide a high level of stimulation—stimulation that not only presents a pleasing result but a spiritually uplifting one metaphorically similar to those experienced in nature. This animation of the architectural experience is not unlike the lift of spirit one experiences through the senses when viewing a good piece of art. As a necessary life element, such experiences are crucial and as such sensory architectural details ‘should always be given high priority’ (Clements-Croons 2004, p. 58). Space, Sensory Perception and the Human Psyche In the words of filmmaker Murray Grigor, ‘To comprehend architecture, one needs to move through its spaces. After all, that’s how we all experience buildings, inside and outside: we walk,

Human Facial Expressions and Emotions Essay Example for Free

Human Facial Expressions and Emotions Essay To accept that the implications of human emotions are universal is indeed very extensive. It speaks to an issue that is deeply entrenched in human nature and it is by no means a trivial question. Much research has been conducted in this field of emotions through the analysis of facial expressions, categorizing evidence into two primary categories: those in favor of the universality of emotions, known as the Universality thesis, or those in favor of cultural influence on emotions. While it has been largely accepted that there is a basic universal language in the field, the bulk of the debate centers on where exactly factors controlling expression of facial expressions lie on this spectrum. There is undeniably overwhelming evidence in support of the universality thesis with both qualitative (judgment studies) and quantitative (muscle unit measurements and brain mapping techniques) data; however, one could not overlook the behavioral and anatomical evidence in favor of culture-specific expressions. Therefore, universal emotions may serve as a very fundamental framework among all humans; yet, it is cultural differences that fine-tune this structure into the emotions each individual expresses. Introduction to Universality Thesis: The Darwinian Hypothesis Principles for the Expression of Emotions The Work of Charles Darwin. Many of the ideas that Darwin formulated in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals have led to this field of research. On the book’s most basic level, he defended that emotion expressions are evolved and adaptive (Hess Thibault, 2009). However, Darwin also posits three crucial principles from which many of the subsequent fundamental questions and debate over emotions and their purpose stem. The Principle of Serviceable Habits. As Hess and Thibault (2009) note, this first principle takes a Lamarckian view of the inheritance of emotions genetically through the force of habits. Darwin explicitly underscores the concept and force of habit. It also speaks very much to the functionality of emotions and their expressions, although most of them are vestigial. However, these traits could still be observed in animals because the civilization of humans would suppress such instinctual tendencies. A common example is that of rage and aggression as a â€Å"playful sneer† or â€Å"ferocious snarl† (Darwin, 1872) reveals animal descent. The Principle of Antithesis. In a reversal of the first principle, the second principle asserts that some expressions are so directly opposite to nature that the only means is that of expressive communication (Darwin 1872). This makes the expression almost analogous to the voice for the purpose of intercommunication. It is worth noting, however, the Darwin extends this principle to not only states, but to traits as well (Hess Thibault, 2009). For instance, Darwin (1872) postulates that the enigmatic action of a gaping mouth could indicate a feebleness of character. Such actions eventually become ingrained through habit. The Principle of the Direct Action of the Excited Nervous System on the Body.  This final principle that Darwin outlines could be considered the direct product of the nervous system. Therefore, some expressions occur to balance excess emotions. For instance, consider the absurd nature of laughter (Hess Thibault, 2009). Heckler (1873) proposed that laughter could in fact be a protective reflex that compromises the excess of the circulatory and respiratory systems through the irritation of vasomotor nerves. The work of Darwin and universality thesis will later by revived in the late 19 60s and early 1970s by the judgments studies of Paul Ekman. Evidence in Support of Universality Evidence derived from Judgment Studies Introduction. The universality thesis is most contingent upon judgment data, evidence of observers seeing the same emotions in all faces (Russell, 1994). Paul Ekman is largely considered to be the pioneer and preeminent scholar in the field of emotions, and his judgment studies with overwhelming evidence supporting the universality of facial expressions are frequently cited in subsequent studies on this topic. The earlier view before studies conducted by Ekman and Friesen from the late 1960s was that facial expressions completely differed from culture to culture (La Barre, 1947). With Ekman and Friesen’s groundbreaking work on the constancy of facial expressions throughout cultures in 1971, however, the tremendous evidence has persuaded much of the psychology world to accept the universality thesis although skeptics still remain (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Pan-cultural udgment studies. Among the first of these pan-cultural judgment studies was conducted by Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen (1969) in New Guinea, Borneo, Brazil, the United States, and Japan where they found evidence in favor of pan-cultural elements in facial displays; observers in these cultures were able to recognize similar emotions in the a standard set of photographs. They first obtained samples of photographed facial expressions that were free of cultural differences. The subjects, too, were carefully selected as data needed to be collected from virtually isolated preliterate societies to eliminate the variable of mass media (Ekman et al. , 1969). Photographs of Caucasians—male and female, adult and children—were used, all of whom were professional and amateur actors. The observers observed primarily the preliterate societies from New Guinea and Borneo, two isolated communities that required translators. 1] The emotion Happy (H) was most universally recognized with tremendous accuracy in responses—United States: 97 H; Brazil: 97 H; Japan: 87 H; New Guinea: 99 H (Pidgin) and 82 H (Fore); and Borneo: 92 H. Fear (F), however, seem to generate a more varied response between different cultures, with Surprise (SU) and Anger (A) as answers as well—United States: 88 F; Japan: 71 F, 26 SU; New Guinea: 46 F, 31 A (Pidgin) and 54 F, 25 A (Fore); Borneo: 40 F, 33 SU. There were also variations within Disgust-Contempt (D) with some mixtures of A and in the Borneo society, even H; A included some D and F; SU included F and A, which these variations occurring primarily in the isolated societies; and finally, Sadness (SA) was sometimes interpreted as A, with A being the only given response in the Fore group of New Guinea. While there is certainly evidence for some basic universality, Ekman, Sorenson, and Friesen attributed the discrepancies to language barriers and task unfamiliarity in the illiterate societies. Flaws and how they were subsequently addressed. Ekman and Friesen (1987) later published a study in which they acknowledge some flaws of previous judgment studies. With respect to the study above, three problems that limited them are: (1) there has only been one such study, (2) not all six emotions were accurately recognized, and (3) the facial expressions were posed as opposed to spontaneous (Ekman Friesen, 1987). In response to the last criticism, Ekman and Friesen (1972) designed a study of facial expressions shown by Japanese and Americans while watching stress-inducing films of body mutilation and neutral films of natural andscape. When subjects from each of the two cultures viewed the films in the absence of a scientist with a hidden video camera, the facial expressions from both groups were virtually identical; when viewing the same films in the presence of a scientist, however, the Japanese tended to mask negative expressions with smile, lending support to the presence of cultural display rules when different cultures man age and mask universal expressions. The primary criticism, however, was (1) again, there has only been one such study, and (2) the films only elicit two emotions (disgust and fear)—other universal expressions were not determined for (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Later studies, however, involving photographs of facial expressions shown to observers of across 12 literature cultures found very high agreement by multiple researchers including Ekman, Friesen, Sorenson, and Izard (Ekman et at. , 1969; Izard, 1971). The multiple replications of this design lends to its credibility (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Universality of the recognizing intensity. Ekman and Friesen (1987) sought to further extend their basic judgment studies by testing for four different hypotheses of cross-cultural agreement for (1) single-choice judgment tasks; (2) the strongest emotion; (3) the second strongest emotion; and (4) strength of emotion. The nations that were chosen included 8 different languages from both Western and non-Western countries. In (1), the single-choice judgment task that replicated previous studies, once again, produced accurate results in terms of the percentage of subjects in a country correctly identifying with a predicted emotion. For instance, two examples include Happiness, in which the percentage ranged from 98% (Scotland) to 69% (Sumatra); for Surprise, 94% (Japan) to 78% (Sumatra), while Sadness, ranged from 92% (U. S. ) to 76% (Turkey). Overall, the emotional term chosen by the majority of the subjects in each culture was accurate 178 out of 180 times. Hypothesis (2) was also supported: 177 out of 180 times, the emotion that was judged to be the most prominent by the majority of each culture was also the predicted emotion. Hypothesis (3), which predicted the universality of the secondary emotion, was sustained as well: in every culture, there was complete agreement about the secondary emotion signaled by expressions of disgust and fear. The results for sadness and surprise, however, were too infrequent to be conclusive (5 out of 30 opportunities and 8 out of 30 respectively). Further research needs to be conducted to determine the cause for this discrepancy (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Hypothesis (4) required subjects to judge the intensity of emotions on an 8-point scale (1-slight, 4-moderate, 8-strong) to predict the universality of judging. This, according to Ekman and Friesen (1987) however, led to inconclusive results. Using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), F(54,2743)=3. 95, signifies a moderate association between culture and intensity judgments. However, instead, the six univariate tests ranged from 2. 3 in Sadness to 6. 66 in Surprise, indicating that there are significant differences among cultures in this respect. These differences, according, to Ekman and Friesen, could have 2 possibilities: (1) politeness and a greater uncertainty about a foreigner or (2) the language barrier, as observers had make judgments in language other than English (Ekman Friesen, 1987). Nevertheless, with three of these hypotheses confirmed, the evidence for universal facial expressions is undeniably overwhelming despite these flaws. Evidence based on Facial Action Coding System (FACS) and Action Units Introduction. Based on the evidence for the presence of six basic emotions across cultures,—happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust and surprise—qualitative descriptions of facial muscles associated with each of them have been identified. For instance, happy expressions include tense lower eyelids, raised cheeks and lip corners pulled up, while sad expressions include inner eyebrows raised and drawn together, and lip corners pulled down (Kohler et al. 2004). Based on such observations, Ekman and Friesen (1978) developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) by identifying the presence of action units (AU). They serve as the standard set of facial expressions. Target AUs in universal emotions. Kohler et al (2004) sought to identify which AUs characterized the four universal emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. A total of 128 images of emotional expressions were used in a sample of 105 sub jects from Drexel University. Of these subjects, 63 were men and 42 were women. There were also 71 Caucasian, 9 Africa-American, 4 Hispanic/Latino, and 21 Asian-American participants, indicating ethnic diversity. They were then asked whether each facial expression matched the target emotion. FACS ratings revealed that uniquely absent and present AUs were found for each emotion (Kohler et al, 2004). In Happy, the presence of AU 6, 7, and 26 was ositively associated with happy recognition, and determined that the presence of 6 increased recognition four times; in Sad, AU 4, 17, and 25 were positively while 15 was negatively associated; in Anger, AU 4, 5, and 16 were positively while 23 was negatively associated[2]; and in Fear, AU 5, 1, and 26 were positively while 4 was negatively associated. By defining expressions quantitatively with unique muscle patterns over a diverse subject group, the universality thesis is further strengthened. The 2004 Athens Olympics Game. Psychologist David Matsmoto[3] (2006) conducted a field behavioral study of the facial expressions displayed by medal winners of the judo competition during the 2004 Athens Olympics Games using F F ACS. With judo photographer Bob Willingham, they captured the spontaneous reactions of 84 medal winners from 35 different countries—the most diverse ethnic group in a spontaneously intense emotional field study—at 3 different times: (1) when they completed the match, (2) when they received their medals from the dignitary, and (3) when they posed on the podium. Matsumoto (2006) found that independent of cultural backgrounds, there are very specific facial expressions that occur in emotionally-charged contexts. This study was designed in response to some criticisms of judgments studies and previous field studies conducted in other sporting events including bowling and soccer (Kraut Johnson, 1979; Ruiz-Belda et al. , 2003). A crucial concern about judgments studies held in laboratories is their posed stimuli and artificial nature because they lack the investigation of the expression within a social context (Matsumoto, 2006). While later field studies were conducted in order to address this concern, there were three flaws that Matsumoto (2006) in turn addresses. The first two are the strength of the elicited emotional response—a factor that is not intense enough with bowling spares and strikes—and the time allowed for expressions to unfold. The third and most important aspect of the study was the type of smile elicited in the social context, something that Kraut and Johnson (1979) had failed to distinguish. Matsumoto determines two types of smiles: the Duchenne smile and the non-Duchenne smile; the former is associated with enjoyment and the latter is associated with pleasantry or social convenience even though the person does not feel positive emotions. While Ruiz-Belda et al (2003) uses the FACS, which detects the muscle movements associated with these smiles, they were not differentiated. In order to isolate photos or victory, Willingham took pictures from the gold and bronze matches (Matsumoto, 2006), the most emotionally intense matches as they both occur at the margin; the former wins the first place while the latter made the cut for a medal. Negative emotions of defeat were searched for in silver medal winners and athletes who placed fifth. Again, as aforementioned, it is important to distinguish the timing of emotions, as the first expressions upon completing a match are often the most instinctual and natural ones. Thirteen out of 14 gold medalists and 18 out of 16 bronze medalists smiled for a total of 31 smiles; of those 31 smiles, 29 were Duchenne and 24 were open-mouthed. In the defeat silver medalists, none smiled and 1 of the 26 fifth placers smiled. Instead, 43% of silver medalists and 35% of fifth placers showed sadness, 29% and 23% showed nothing (respectively), and 14% and 15% showed contempt (again, respectively). Upon receiving the medal, which is a much more public event than initial expressions, 54 of the 56 athletes smiled. All 14 gold medalists (12 open-mouthed), 6 silver medalists (out of the 14), and 20 bronze medalists (out of 28) had Duchenne smiles. Cultural differences were tested for, but none were found. In the final situation, the most public of the three, the athletes’ expressions were taken on the podium. Again, all the gold medalists smiled; only 9 silver medalists of the 14 smiled (only 5 of these were uncontrolled, of which 3 were controlled Duchenne); and 26 bronze medalists of the 28 smiled (13 of which were open-mouthed and Duchenne). Interestingly in this last scenario, cultural differences was evident: gold and bronze medalists from North America-Western Europe and East Asia were much more prone to displaying Duchenne smiles (96%) as opposed to gold and bronze medalists from other countries (47%). This study of facial expressions further reinforces the notion of universal emotions. Because no other emotion other than the Duchenne smile was prominent in these expressions of victory, the data suggests that it may be the only facial marker of the joy of victory (Matsumoto, 2006). Matsumoto then proposed an evolutionary reason why this may be the case along the lines of behavioral ecology: facial expressions provide rapid means of communication, and it may not have been absolutely adaptively necessary to communicate various emotions of enjoyment. However, while this last point is highly speculative, the data that Matsumoto provides for universal facial expressions, which were displayed most prominently in more private settings but still detectable in more public ones using FACS, is very thorough and convincing.

Analysis of Spring In War Time by Edith Nesbit :: essays research papers

Spring In War-Time by Edith Nesbit is a very moving poem. It describes nature in such a beautiful way, and then goes on to say how, to her, it is not beautiful anymore. She writes about her loss by saying things such as Where last year we used to go Where we shall not go again. Nesbit explains how she and her partner used to do lovely things together like go on walks in the woods and enjoy the nature. Her partner sadly died in the war, and since then, she can not appreciate nature's beauty anymore. Life seems to have stopped for her but in reality, life goes on. Just like last year's violets, too, But they have no scent this year. She is a casualty of the war, not physically, but mentally. She is wounded emotionally by the loss of her loved one. This poem is set out like a nursery rhyme, its message is simple. The message reads that, in her eyes, war has ruined everything that used to be beautiful. War is unnatural and cruel, completely the opposite of nature. Spring In War-Time reflects on the memories she had with her partner. It shows how they can never do things which they used to because war has taken him away, tearing them apart forever. It's obvious it is going to take Nesbit a long time to let it go, if not never. All on the verses have four stresses per line, with a rhythm and a rhyme, except for the last verse. Presently red roses blown Will make all the garden gay? Not yet have the daisies grown On your clay. This last verse just stops. Without warning, it just finishes and you are left thinking, "Oh..." It is short and it leaves the poem sounding slightly un-finished, like Nesbit?s life with her partner. It stops suddenly like his death, his death was sudden. This last verse tells us that he has only recently died in the war and been buried, becoming part of nature, not just an observer of it. Nesbit has all her memories of him to hold onto mentally, but physically all she has is his gravestone and maybe a few photos.

Human Cognitive Development Essay

The paper is designed to discuss human cognitive development through the prism of various perspectives. Apriori, developmental psychology is nowadays dominated by Piaget’s views, so the essay provides a detailed examination of his theory, including it basic assumptions, the connection between human physiology and cognitive development and the four stages of progress of cognitive abilities: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. Beyond the major focus, the essay also discusses four alternative approaches to cognitive development, including relevant research, conducted by the founders and followers of rational-constructivist, social learning, information-processing and sociocultural perspectives and the differences between traditional Piagetian views and these alternative positions. The author uses three articles from different psychology-oriented journals: â€Å"Personal cognitive development and its implications for teaching and learning† be Ferrari and Mahalingam (1998), â€Å"Commentary on Vygotsky† by Jean Piaget (2000) and the article, written almost immediately after the emergence of Piaget’s stage theory – â€Å"The development of formal operations in logical and moral judgment† by Kuhn, Langer, Kohlberg, and Haan. Developmental psychology is a vast area of knowledge that seeks to explore and explain various aspects of human psychosocial development, including its moral, emotional and cognitive components (Ferrari and Mahalingam, 1998). Cognitive development refers to the development of human intellect, abstractive, critical and creative thinking that provide successful cognition and comprehension of the world of objects. The most prominent and popular theory of human cognitive development was created by Jean Piaget, whose approach to the progress in this context is constructivist, so that the scholar views the construction of cognitive abilities as self-motivated action (Piaget, 2000). As Kuhn et al (1977) assume, â€Å"Piaget’s research methods are based primarily on case studies [they were descriptive]. While some of his ideas are supported through more correlational and experimental methodologies, others are not. For example, Piaget believes that biological development drives the movement from one cognitive stage to the next† (Kuhn et al, 1977, p. 98). Nevertheless, although Piaget’s investigation basically refers to physiology rather than psychology, the scholar manages to link biological and cognitive progress through the description of the transformation of reflexes into formal operations. Initially, he describes two major processes that occur in individual when adapting to the environment: assimilation and accommodation. Both of them condition the complication of their manner of adaptation and therefore determine cognitive development (Piaget, 2000). Accommodation refers to the alteration of cognitive abilities in response to the requirements of the environment for the purpose of gaining something from the surrounding world. Assimilation, in turn, refers to the transformation of the environment with further placing it into preexisting cognitive schemes and constructs (Piaget, 2000). Due to the fact that life situation and the corresponding requirements from the environment tend to complicate through the life course, the individual is forced to respond to complex stimuli and construct hierarchical cognitive structures (for instance, from general to concrete) (Piaget, 2000; Ferrari and Mahalingam, 1998). Piaget distinguishes and describes four stages of cognitive development. Sensorimotor stage, or infancy lasts from the birth to 2 years, has six sub-stages, associated with gradual development of reflexes, focus of vision and coordination in movements. Intelligence is manifested through the progress in motor activity, but the individual uses no social symbols (e. g. language) during this period. The exploration of world is very dynamic, but the related knowledge remains limited because of the weak cognitive abilities. The outcomes of this stage are the emergence of basic creativity or insight (understanding of pictures and language) as well as the progress of symbolic abilities (Piaget, 2000).

Is College Too Stressful?

College is a life changing experience for any person that wants to continue their learning experience, and since this is such a momentous occasion there are adjustments that must be made by students in order to succeed in college. With such drastic changes people going to college will be put under stress, and they will have to make certain decisions to make their college experience a doable one. Even though college tends to be stressful for student it should not be overwhelming or cause a student to break down and give up because it is too hard.Yes, college is very challenging at times, but is it too much of a challenge to where students will put under major amounts of stress and will break down from the constant flow of homework and readings that the professors assign? The answer to this question is no, college does not put too much stress on students because if a student is willing to make the right choices and sacrifice their effort and time then college would not be stressful. â €Å"Stress is a feeling that's created when we react to particular events.It's the body's way of rising to a challenge and preparing to meet a tough situation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This is how Teen Heath, an online article on defining what causes stress, describes what stress is. There are two different types of stress and they are good stress and bad stress. Good stress â€Å"tends to inspire us to rise to a challenge, so that we discover and experience more of our potential,† (Good Stress vs. Bad Stress paragraph 2), while bad stress, â€Å"leaves us feeling depleted and anxious† (Good Stress vs. Bad Stress paragraph 2). Most college students usually feel overwhelmed because they are not managing their time correctly and are doing everything at the last minute. If a college student has excellent time management and is responsible to make correct decisions then college will be less challenging and will promote good stress in their lives. Having good time management skills is very important when going to college because of excess homework and readings that are assigned by professors.In college a student has a lot of free time for doing homework because college classes are more of a lecture style setting, so students are usually taught what they supposed to know for the homework during class and given time outside of class to do the homework. Giving different classes a specific amount of committed hours will help with procrastination and a student will be able to organize when homework and study hours will be for each class. Having awareness of what your goals are will assist you in prioritizing your activities,† (Managing Your Time paragraph 1) if a student has a plan of attack of how they are going to complete their homework goals then they will be successful. Responsibility is also another key role in being successful for college and having a good stress environment.College students have a lot of freedom because most college students do not live with their parents, so there is no one to wake them up for class, telling them when to do their homework, or anyone to tell them when it’s time for them to go to bed. In college, you will have†¦ a great deal of freedom and flexibility,† (Managing Your Time paragraph 1) students must take the initiative to do what they know is right in order to accomplish their goal of doing well in college. There are many parties that happen on campus grounds and sometimes the partying will affect a student’s consistency of going to class because they partied too hard and were not able to get up for class, or they went to class and were too tired to focus.Then there are instances where a student is not consistent with their homework because they did not feel like doing it. Without parents as a constant reminder students need to adapt. Also, having too many class hours can hinder a student from being successful in college. A student must know what their maximum work load is, so they can take on the homework that the professors assign to them while still getting good grades. Many students tend to take on way more class hours than they are capable of causing them to feel very stressed out and hopeless.If a student does take on too many hours then they will end up having to sacrifice other classes in order to manage a decent grade for a harder class. Then some students take classes that they are under qualified for and then they end up struggling because they do not meet the credentials of that class. A student must know their limits in order to flourish in a college atmosphere. College can be very stressful for students because of some indirect causes from a student’s personal life.For example, a student might become very ill and is unable to attend class and they fall behind in class. If this were to happen then the student must communicate to their professor that they are struggling and they need help catching up. Professors tend to be very unde rstanding of a student falls behind in class as long as the student is telling the professor what is going on. Then there are scenarios where people have no choice but to take upper level classes within the same time frame because what degree they are majoring in makes it hard for them to spread out difficult classes.Also, some college students have children and that makes it harder for them to manage their time with doing homework from professors because they have to take care of their child first. Sometimes colleges do have professors that are very unreasonable with giving ludicrous amounts of homework and are not willing to make it manageable for students to succeed in their class, and if this scenario does happen then the student should either drop that class and take another time, or just try and find a different professor to take the class with.There are ways to make college less stressful if it is too stressful on a student as long as they communicate with their advisors or p rofessors. College may seem stressful because of poor time management, a student took too many classes, and the lack of responsibility that some students tend to have. With poor time management a student will be unorganized and will not be able to succeed because there is no routine for them to follow thus making it hard for the student to have a time slot for when they will study for test or do homework for a class.Also, students are liable to take on too many class hours and not have enough time to put in the effort of studying therefore they have to sacrifice one class over the other just to make ends meet. When a student goes off to college there is a lot of freedom because they are away from their parents and there is no one to tell them when to do their homework, so instead of focusing on studies they might go out with friends and reap the consequences of not doing their homework on time and not study for a test. College is stressful because students make it stressful with unw ise decisions that are made.

There is no society that is not confronted Essays

There is no society that is not confronted Essays There is no society that is not confronted Essay There is no society that is not confronted Essay ‘There is no society that is non confronted with the job of criminalism . Crime is normal because a society exempt from it is utterly impossible . Crime is so necessary .’ ( Durkheim, 1939 ) Discuss. The above citation from celebrated Gallic sociologist Emile Durkheim should, foremost and foremost, be understood within its fixed historical context. Ultimately, we can non trust to understand Durkheim or the remarks that he made refering offense without taking the needed clip to understand the cultural, societal, economic and political factors that conspired to impact his universe position and act upon his apprehension of the major socio-political jobs of his twenty-four hours. Therefore, we should from the beginning understand that, composing on the Eve of the Second World War and at the terminal of the 1930s – the most overtly condemnable decennary that had occurred in history at that point in clip – Durkheim was needfully concerned about the impact of offense, anarchy and perturb upon post-industrial western society and â€Å"the possible pandemonium that the capitalist industrialist system could produce† [ 1 ] . We should try to bear in head the impact of the coming of the epoch of organized offense upon Durkheim and his coevalss, particularly in the United States of America where prohibition had led to metropoliss such as Chicago going socially and politically indocile as a consequence of the gang-related force that accompanied bootlegging, smuggling and the subsequent ‘turf wars’ that erupted over criminalised district. Likewise, we should try non to bury the impact of the Great Depression and its incumbent economic prostration upon the people of North America and Europe where offense was an intrinsic response to this widespread sense of socio-economic want. Added to this, the 1920s and the 1930s besides saw the beginnings of the construct of the modern mass media, which fixated upon offense and high profile condemnable instances, such as the snatch of Charles Lindbergh’s babe in 1932, and made cult heroes out of scoundrels and ‘public enemies’ such as Al C apone. Yet as Theoharis et al compactly note, â€Å"in the 1920s, offense had sometimes been viewed about as a signifier of amusement ; in the 1930s it came to be seen as a symptom of moral prostration. It echoed the country’s sense of uncertainty that it could last the economic prostration with its values in tact.† [ 2 ] This, so, constitutes the cultural and historical model in which Durkheim would hold conceived of the above citation with civil society both in America and in Europe on the threshold of a sensed moral and economic prostration. Therefore, we should understand Durkheim as being concerned in the first case with impact of this unprecedented societal and cultural alteration that had manifested itself throughout station industrial western society and the pressing sociological demand â€Å"to develop policies to pull off the worst effects of it.† [ 3 ] Durkheim was hence a cardinal ideological constituent of what would go known as the ‘Chicago School’ of early criminology – the radical new broad school of faculty members and sociologists who converged in a command to try to better understand offense so that it was no longer seen through the anachronic political prism of ‘good’ and ‘evil’ ; ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ or, so, the modern-day media prism of what the British criminologist would subsequently term ‘folk Satans and moral panics’ whereby â€Å"a status, episode, individual, or group of individuals emerges to go defined as a menace to societal values and interests.† [ 4 ] Rather, the coming and subsequent victory of the new sociological paradigms advocated by Durkheim and the Chicago School sought to turn to the cultural and sociological instabilities of the yesteryear so as to show a more accurate portraiture of modern-day society thereby m aking a fertile rational, academic and analytical context in which to analyze offense without resort to the biass and factual inaccuracies that had blighted the classicist attack to offense and society in the eighteenth and 19th centuries [ 5 ] . As a consequence, acts that had antecedently been understood preponderantly in footings of a societal aberrance or a biological anomalousness would, henceforth, be understood in footings of cause, effect and divergence from set cultural norms [ 6 ] . This represented a considerable ideological spring frontward from old contemplations with respects to offense and society and constituted the birth of the construct of the modern academic subject of criminology with its incumbent accent upon cause instead than consequence, liberalism instead than conservativism, sociology instead than biological science and positivism as opposed to classicalism. Emile Durkheim should be considered to hold been an built-in portion of this displacement off from the antique classical impressions of offense ( which were born out of the epoch of the Enlightenment in the late 18th century [ 7 ] ) towards a more sociologically grounded grasp of the economic, political and cultural worlds of the modern-day age w here offense had to be accepted as being the necessary residue of human development. This, as Cordella and Siegel point out, was one of the most of import bequests of Durkheim and the positive school of early criminology. â€Å"Durkheim was a rationalist with a sociological instead than a biological orientation. Harmonizing to his vision of societal positivism, offense is portion of human nature because it has existed in every age, in both poorness and prosperity. Crime is normal because it is virtually impossible to conceive of a society in which condemnable behavior is wholly absent. Such a society would about demand that all people be and move precisely likewise. The inevitableness of offense is linked to the differences ( heterogeneousness ) within society.† [ 8 ] This prevalent point of view that offense was an inevitable byproduct of society was – within the fixed historical context in which Durkheim and his contemporise were working – an of import methodological connexion to hold made because the 1920s and 1930s ( the epoch which formed the rules of the Chicago School of criminology ) saw consecutive authoritiess in Europe and North America instil Draconian Torahs aimed at wholly eliminating offense from society. We have, for case, already noted how in the USA the Federal Government attempted to censor the sale of intoxicant in a command to cut down the societal effects of offense, merely ensuing in the creative activity of professional mobsters and bootlegging in the most dumbly populated of American urban countries such as Chicago. Likewise in Europe, the fascist absolutisms which seized political power in Germany and Italy during the 1920s and 1930s can be seen to hold been a contemplation of mainstream’s society inc reasing preoccupation with offense and the over-riding desire to eliminate delinquency at any human-centered and moral cost. Therefore, we should do a point of underscoring the extent to which Durkheim and the Chicago School represented a reaction against the â€Å"symbolic campaign to confirm traditional values† [ 9 ] and, furthermore, how these early criminological theoreticians served to make highly fertile evidences for the geographic expedition of new methods to battle intensifying degrees of offense in society by exposing such historical myths. This is an of import point and one that ought to be borne in head throughout the balance of the treatment. None of this, of class, is to province that we should take Durkheim’s citation at face value. He did non intend that offense is â€Å"normal† or â€Å"necessary† in any positive sort of sense and he was non proposing that broader societal job with offense should in any manner be downscaled in conformity with the libertarian position that offense was inevitable. Rather, the point he was doing was that if offense did non be it would intend that every human being is born equal, capable to equal chances and capable to the same caprice of ground and illusion. This, to Durkheim, was an absurdness ; hence, the absurd nature of his remarks. Therefore, instead than taking his words at face value we have to understand the sociological context in which he was composing which, as we have already seen, was characterised by an anachronic campaign to free society of offense in an era still staggering from the lay waste toing socio-economic reside of the Wall Street Crash, the s ubsequent Great Depression and – at the clip that the citation was written – the oncoming of a 2nd universe war in the infinite of a coevals. As a consequence, we should do a point non to trivialize Durkheim and the Chicago criminologists he so to a great extent influenced for the manner in which they conceptualise offense and its impact upon their historical and cultural context. Rather, we should understand how Durkheim and the criminologists and sociologists who comprised the original Chicago School were more concerned with analyzing how offense seemed to be endemic in certain vicinities while looking to be virtually non-existent in other vicinities. Viewed through this prism, we can see how Durkheim helped to give birth to the ideal of what we know today as ‘social exclusion’ every bit good as to the â€Å"concept of societal disorganisation.† [ 10 ] Having established a fixed conceptual and historical model for Durkheim, the Chicago School of criminology and the challenges that these early 20th century criminologists faced, we should now turn our attending towards analyzing how these penetrations impacted upon the criminology during the balance of the 20th century and besides now at the morning of the 20 first century when the subject of criminology is once more capable to the same historical argument with respects to offense and its intrinsic relationship with modern-day society. Equally far as the balance of the 20th century was concerned, Durkheim’s remarks served to move as the design through which consecutive coevalss of policy shapers sought to gestate offense with the watershed decennary of the 1970s functioning to radically change the manner in which provinces attempted to undertake the age old job of offense. Using Durkheim’s observations that offense was a normal adjunct of station industrial society, policy shapers in the western hemisphere progressively sought to ‘control’ offense ( as opposed to trying to eliminate it wholly ) . This, as David Garland suggests, involved a sweeping rethinking of the manner in which civil society should be structured. â€Å"A reconfigured field of offense control involves more than merely a alteration in society’s responses to offense. It besides entails new patterns of commanding behavior and making justness, revised constructs of societal order and societal control, and altered ways of keeping societal coherence and pull offing group relations.† [ 11 ] This, so, suggests that Durkheim’s predominating point of view ( viz. that offense was a necessary and normal merchandise of society ) can be seen to hold become an deep-rooted portion of the condemnable justness landscape during the 2nd half of the 20th century where policy shapers accepted the demand to command offense instead than waste clip trying to eliminate it from society. This was particularly true of the Anglo-American schools of criminology which emerged after the 1960s, asking a widespread re-evaluation of the early 20th century ideologists such as Durkheim. This alone bears testimony to the digesting impact of the Chicago School of criminology and the rationalist political orientation that it promulgated. Indeed, subsequent surveies by criminologists, sociologists and philosophers during the 2nd half of the 20th century served to cement Durkheim’s averment that offense was a necessary and normal aspect of civil society. The Gallic philosopher Michel Foucaul t, for case, agreed with Durkheim with respects to offense being a normal residue of modern society ; furthermore, Foucault saw offense as being an indispensable ingredient of the nature of political control in western society with the fad environing anarchy and upset conspiring to cement the legitimisation of the modern state province and, in peculiar, it’s function as defender of private people. Crime and the subsequent penalty of offense in the pretense of the prison were therefore grounds of â€Å"the impulse towards totalitarian control which Foucault conceives to be intrinsic to modern society.† [ 12 ] It can be seen, so, that the remarks made by Emile Durkheim influenced non merely his modern-day sociologists and criminologists in his ain clip but besides the subsequent coevalss of sociologists and criminologists who came in his aftermath. Indeed, even at the morning of the 20 first century, his positions associating to offense being an endemic portion of civil society remain valid. When, for case, we pause to see the coming of the alleged ‘new penology’ , we can understand the extent to which Durkheim’s discernibly rationalist, realist impressions of offense and society have impacted upon the modern-day direction, control and containment of civil noncompliance and anarchy. â€Å"The new poenology is neither about penalizing nor about rehabilitating persons. It is about placing and pull offing boisterous groups. It is concerned with the reason non of single behavior or even community administration but of managerial procedures. Its end is non to extinguish offense but to do it tolerable through systematic coordination.† [ 13 ] In the concluding analysis, so, it has been shown that Emile Durkheim and the socially grounded positive school of political orientation which he represented served to wholly change the manner that western station industrial societies thought about offense. Therefore, into the vacuity created by the disintegration of the outmoded societal and political thoughts of the classical school stepped the imperfect, realist political orientation promulgated by influential rational figures such as Durkheim. Yet it has besides been shown that the thought that offense is an inevitable, necessary and normal characteristic of society continues to vibrate in the modern epoch where both criminologists and policy shapers look towards pull offing offense in the same manner in which 1 would try to pull off an administration. This represents a continuance of instead than a displacement off from Durkheim’s groundbreaking analysis. We should, finally, expect to see a prolongation of the cultural ca pital ascribed to Durkheim and the positive school of sociological and criminological theory over the class of the 20 first century where the boundaries between the person and the province continue to film over. Mentions Cohen, S. ( 2002 )Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of Mods and Rockers: Second EditionLondon and New York: Routledge Cordella, P. and Siegel, L.J. ( 1996 )Readingsin Contemporary Criminological TheoryBoston: University Press of New England Feeley, M.M. and Simon, J. ( 2002 )The New Penology, in, McLaughlin, E. , Muncie, J. and Hughes, G. ( Eds. )Criminological Positions: EssentialReadingsLondon and New York: Sage Garland, D. ( 2002 )The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary SocietyOxford: Oxford University Press Joyce, P. ( 2006 )Condemnable Justice: An Introduction to Crime and the Criminal Justice SystemUffculme: Willan Printing Murfee Lanier, M and Henry, S. ( 2004 )Essential Criminology: Second EditionBoulder, CO: Westview Imperativeness Newburn, T. ( 2007 )CriminologyUffculme: Willan Printing Smart, B. ( 1994 )Michel Foucault: Critical AppraisalsLondon: Taylor A ; Francis Snipes, J. B. , Bernard, T.J. and Vold, G. B. ( 2002 )Theoretical CriminologyOxford and New York: Oxford University Press Soothill, K. , Peelo, M. and Taylor, C. ( 2002 )Making Sense of CriminologyCambridge: Polity Press Theoharis, A.G. , Poveda, T.G. , Rosenfeld, S. and Powers, G.R. ( 1999 )The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference GuideNew York: Greenwood Publication Tilley, N. ( 2005 )Introduction: Thinking Realistically about Crime Prevention, in, Tilley, N. ( Ed. )Handbook of Crime Prevention and Community SafetyUffculme: Willan Printing Walklate, S. ( 2005 )Criminology: The BasicssLondon and New York: Routledge 1

How to Stop Running Out of Time on ACT Reading

How to Stop Running Out of Time on ACT Reading SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Running out of time on any test is extremely frustrating.For me, it’s always a fight between my anxiety arising from racing the clock and the feeling of "if only I had more time, I could do better!" (spoiler: no matter which feeling wins, I lose). It’s even worse on tests like the SAT and ACT because they’re so lengthy:if you run out of time on a section, you don't get the relief of "Well, at least I'm done with the test" because you have to move right on to the next section. Since you can’t actually stretch out time (probably?) and, except under special circumstances, can’t get extra time, you'll need another solution to help you avoid running out of time on the ACT. So what strategies can you use? I’ll discuss the top misconception students have about running out of time on the ACT Reading section and give you strategies to avoid running out of time. First, however, I want to do a quick run-through of the timing for ACT Reading- after all, to stop running out of time on it, you must first know its basic layout. We have an in-depth explanation of this in another article, but in case you don't have time to read it, I've written up a summary below. Feature Image:William Warby/Flickr How Long Is the ACT Reading Section? The ACT Reading section is the third section of the ACT and consists of 40 questions on passages in four subject areas (humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, literary fiction). In total, you'll have 35 minutes for the section. Usually, there's just one long passage per subject, but on occasion there will be a couple of shorter passages with questions that ask you to compare things across passages. We have more on what's actually tested in ACT Reading in this article. ACT Reading questions come in five main varieties: Main idea:What’s the main point or theme of the passage? Detail: Given specific information from the text, explain the meaning and/or function. Development: In what order are ideas arranged in the passage? Vocabulary: As used in the passage, what does a word or phrase mean? Implied Ideas: From what's written in the passage, what can you infer about the author or subject? Voice: What is the tone or style of the author? (subset of inference questions) Find out more from our detailed guide on the best approach to take when reading ACT passages. A Big Misconception: Reading Fast = High ACT Reading Score Excelling on the ACT Reading section is not just about reading speed- otherwise, it'd be called the ACT Reading Race (or something like that). If you read a lot, or read quickly, that might give you a little bit of an edge. But reading fast inno way guarantees that you'll excel on ACT Reading or that you won’t feel rushed. If you’re a slow reader, you might be thinking, "Yeah, right. I’m already starting from behind since I'm a slow reader. There's no way I'll be able to finish the ACT Reading section." False. I will illustrate just how false this is with a case study ... of myself. I've always read pretty quickly and voraciously. In high school, I started keeping track of the books I was finishing because I was a huge nerd and wanted statistics. I found that I was completing about one book every three days. When I took a timed ACT practice test recently, however, I found that I felt really pressed for time. My first response: "Wait, what? I'm never, ever strapped fortime when it comes to reading (unless there's somewhere I have to be and I just want to finish one last page ... chapter ... book ... oops)." So what the heck was going on? Why did I feel as if I was running out of time, even though I read quickly? The Main Issue: I Didn’t Prepare for the ACT Clearly, the issue was not that I don't read enough. What was actually lacking was experience with the ACT Reading section.For example, I didn’t know that there were 10 questions for each of the four passages. I didn't realize that there were only four passages, and I wasn't familiar with all the question types. I also didn’t keep track of time as I was going through the test until the very end when I realized, "Ahhhh! I have five minutes left! How did this happen?!" And so on. In reality, the key to doing well on ACT Reading is to be able to skim text while also retaining meaning.If you're a slow reader, you can learn to effectively skim with practice. But if you're a fast reader, you must be aware that ACT Reading is much denser than your average novel; you'll need to practice to be able to extract important information from the ACT passages. The Solution: Practice, Practice, Practice It’s not just the way to get to Carnegie Hall (as the old music joke goes)- practice will get you places with test prep as well. But just doing some desultory, half-hearted practice isn't enough. You must practice and study effectively. When studying for ACT Reading, there are three main areas you'll need to focus on to get better at finishing the section in time. We'll cover those next. Tip 1: Practice Monitoring Your Time The first skill to practice is keeping track of your time. Read on to learn exactly how to do this. Know How Long You're Taking on Each Question If you find you’re taking too much time on a single question, mark it and come back to it when you're reviewing your answers later. But what is "too much time"? The answer to this depends on your target score and/or on the score you're aiming for on a particular section.Therefore, when preparing for the ACT Reading section, you must know your raw and scaled target scores. Why does this matter?If you’re aiming for a lower target score, you can skip more questions and spend more time on the questions you do know how to answer. Remember, the ACT Reading section contains 40 questions that you have to answer in 35 minutes: if you’re spending more than a minute on a question, you’re going to run into problems. The 52-ish seconds-per-question time limit only applies, however, if you're aiming for a perfect or near-perfect score and need to give every question a fair shot. If you're aiming for a 25, on the other hand, you can guess on the hardest 10-12 Reading questions and focus your energies on easier questions (though of course which questions are easier depends on the person). This also means you'll get more time to spend on these questions.If you only need to answer 28 questions correctly to reach your target score, you can spend up to 23 seconds more per question (28 questions in 35 minutes vs 40 questions in 35 minutes ... and you thought there wouldn't be math in this article). Know How Much Time You Have Left While You're Taking the Test This doesn’t necessarily mean dividing up the time beforehand, as in, "OK, I have 35 minutes and four passages, so I should take eight minutes on each passage and answers the first time through. Then I’ll have eight minutes to go over everything at the end." Even typing that made my head hurt, and doing those calculations in the moment will take up way too much time. Instead, get used to keeping an eye on the clock. I personally try to check the time only after I have finished skimming a passage and have answered all the questions for that passage (even though my initial instinct is to constantly check the time). You'll need to figure out what works best for you, but my general advice is to avoid checking the time more than once every few questions- otherwise, you'll end up wasting time trying to save time. If you find you have no grasp of the passage of time when you’re practicing answering questions, trypracticing with a stopwatch set to go off in five- or seven-minute increments. Just remember that you won’t actually be able to do this on test day (that said, the test proctors might give verbal warnings when there are 10 and five minutes left). Learn Time-Monitoring Strategies When looking over the ACT Reading section, mark questions you end up spending a long time on as well as the ones you’re not sure about. Really break down what stumped you about the questions you spent too much time on and the ones you got wrong or were uncertain about. Was it the wording of the question? The type of question? Were you just tired and misread the passage, so you didn't see the answer? Is there a pattern to the ACT Reading questions you're running out of time on? All this data is valuable fodder for your test-prep process, which is toestablish a feedback loop of testing, reviewing your mistakes, and testing again.Be aware that it is essential not to skip over the middle step of reviewing your mistakes thoroughly. Not sure whether running out of time is your only issue? Then read the section on understanding your high-level weaknesses in this article. Mike Schinkel/Flickr Tip 2: Practice Reading Passages and Answering Questions Practicing the ACT Reading questions over and over won’t necessarily make you a faster reader. It will, however, make you better at reading the passages in a way that will help you answer the questions more efficiently.What do I mean by this? I can't dictate the best way for you to read the passages, but if your current approach isn't working, you might want to consider switching it up. The Three Main Methods for Attacking ACT Reading Passages Here are the three primary options you have for approaching ACT Reading passages: Read the whole passage in detail:This is really only a good strategy if you're both thorough and quick as a reader- it's probably the worst option if you're already worried about running out of time. Read the questions first:Figure out what details you need to look for in the passage by reading the questions first; you'll then jump back to the passage to find these details. This method can be disorienting for some people, but for others it really saves on time. Skim the passage, then attack the questions:Get a sense of the content, structure, and purpose of the passage before approaching the questions, and then return to the passage for more detailed information required by specific questions. The more familiar you are with the ACT Reading passages and questions, the more familiar you'll become with the test and the better you’ll know what to pay attention to and when to use which strategy. For instance, if you read the questions before reading the passageand run into a question that has specific lines associated with it (e.g., "In lines 12-42"), you'll know that you must read only those specific lines in order to answer it. Alternatively, if you skim the passage before you answer the questions, you should get used to noticing transition words/phrases such as "however" and "in contrast." These words are important in that they indicate a change in tone. Here's an example: "While some scientists still adhere to the cold-blooded dinosaur hypothesis, recent research has convinced many more others that a likelier hypothesis is ..." We have more strategies, as well as more detailed information on why you might want to choose one approach over the others, in our article on the best way to approach the passages on the ACT Reading section. More ACT Reading Strategies Which passage you read can make a big difference if you tend to run out of time on ACT Reading. If you’re more comfortable with certain subject matter, such as prose fiction,start with those passages and questions rather than going through the section in order.Not only will you be able to pick up some easy points by answering questions you're more likely to get correct, but you'll also be more relaxed when you get to the passages that are more difficult for you since you won't have had to struggle right off the bat. Another strategy is tobubble in all your answers at the end(read more about this in the Quick Tip section of our perfect scorer article). This strategy is only helpful, however, if you can make sure to leave a good four to five minutes at the end of the section to do this,since you don’t want to run out of time before you bubble in answers you got (the ultimate in frustrating). If you can think of other ways to keep yourself from running out of time on ACT Reading (perhaps by using some mindfulness techniques to focus?), that's great. More important than using any one strategy is to use the strategies that work for you. ACT Reading strategies: less complicated than chess strategies (MarkRattapong/Flickr) Tip 3: Practice Taking ACT Reading as Part of the Whole ACT There’s knowing the material ... and then there’s having the stamina to get through it. Luckily, the ACT never varies the order in which material is presented,which gives you an advantage when prepping: you can emulate test-day conditions when you take practice tests by taking everything in the right order. Just like you wouldn’t practice for a triathlon by only doing each activity separately and never doing them all together, or wouldn’t only rehearse a play with scenes out of sequence before opening night, you need to take the ACT Reading section in sequence with the rest of the ACT at least a few times before test day. On the other hand, because ACT Reading is always the third section of the ACT, your brain will probably be tired by the time you get to it.What's more, even after you finish the Reading section, you'll still have one more section to go (the Science section). For me, this really became a factor since my brain got fatigued from focusing on one subject for an extended period of time. But for other people I know, the old SAT's format that switched back and forth from subject to subject was far more difficult (making the ACT a comparatively better choice). Now, though, both the ACT and SAT use a similar format in which the sections always appear in the same order. Another point to keep in mind is that you’ll most likely be taking the ACT on a Saturday morning, so if you’re not a morning person, be sure to do some practice Reading sections in the morning to give yourself a good idea of what your energy levels will be like on the actual test. If you’re more sluggish in the mornings, your reading speed will probably be affected as well; taking practice tests in the afternoon might not give you an accurate picture of how quickly you can do the ACT Reading section under real test conditions. Special Circumstances: ACT Timing Accommodations If you really have trouble with reading in time-constrained situations, you might qualify for special testing accommodations. It's unlikely that prepping for and taking the ACT would be the first time you notice you have major problems with reading;however, it could be the first time you wouldn't be able to compensate for it in other ways (e.g., spending hours and hours on homework and extra credit to make up for low test scores). The ACT does offer accommodations for eligible students who have documented issues, along with information on the steps students must take in order to get accommodations on testing day. But a word of warning: accommodations are far more likely to be granted if students' special circumstances have been documented for a long period of time.ACT, Inc. tends to be leery of students who get diagnosed with something just in time to take the test- they might be stretching the truth in order to get extra time. So how can you avoid getting caught in red tape and having your accommodations held up? Plan and apply for special accommodations earlyif possible- the request process alone can take a while. If you're in middle school or early high school and are having serious problems with reading when compared with your peers, get psycho-educational testing then rather than waiting until it's time to register for the ACT. If, for whatever reason, applying for special accommodations early isn't possible (for instance, if you only recently acquired a hearing or visual impairment), make sure it's clear to the person documenting your condition (the person who will provide you with the information to send to ACT, Inc.) why you are only doing something about this now.They might want you to explain this to them, too, so it’s good to have an explanation ready. How to Save Time on ACT Reading: Recap ACT Reading can be a tricky section for many test takers, but it's definitely possible to save time on it if you know how to prep effectively for it and what strategies to use on test day. To recap, here are our three tips to keep in mind as you study for ACT Reading: Take timed ACT practice tests and monitor your time on the Reading section Get comfortable with answering ACT Reading questions so you can use all strategies effectively Take entire practice tests in sequence at least a few times before test day so you know what to expect If you think there’s a bigger problemcausing you to run out of time on ACT Reading, get psycho-educational testing as early as possible to confirm your condition and to see whether you are eligible for special timing accommodations on the ACT. Now, go forth and read! What’s Next? How do you figure out what’s causing you problems on ACT Reading? Read our detailed post on what's actually tested on the Reading section, our article that covers the best ways to read the passages on ACT Reading, and our ultimate guide to ACT Reading. How long is the ACT overall? Get more tips on ACT timing with our guide. For more tips on how to master the ACT,read our complete guide by PrepScholar's resident perfect scorer. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by ACT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Celebrating Nerdiness Analysis Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Celebrating Nerdiness Analysis - Coursework Example In the first paragraph, Rogers mentions some stereotyped definitions of nerdiness, such as being â€Å"friendless† and â€Å"book-smart sissies† (1). He opposes the definition of nerdiness as being suck-ups, however, because nerds, since they are nerds, violate social norms at the behest of authorities. Rogers also underlines that the rise of the Internet makes nerdiness cool to some extent, because their computer skills are handy in high-tech societies. Roger starts expounding on the definition of nerdiness on the first paragraph, because he already names several common definitions of nerdiness. This placement is effective, because it establishes ethos. Rogers is saying that he knows what a nerd is, because he is a nerd himself. His experiences are sufficient to explain that society often get nerdiness wrong. In the first paragraph, he stresses that nerds are far from being suck-ups to authority figures, because their deficiency in social skills tend to â€Å"horrify† the latter (1). The effect of this statement is it shows that nerds are not concerned of following authority, in fact, they are ultimate individualists, sometimes, too extremely so that their social skills and experiences suffer in the process. But like any other individual, these consequences are acceptable, because it indicates that nerds are social rebels, to some extent, and this makes them similar to other average-intelligence people. 2. Using the list on pp. 250-251 in Wyrick, (attached) identify and provide examples of those strategies used by the author in order to clarify the definition. For example, does he compare nerdiness to something else? Does he use familiar synonyms for nerdiness? Does he illustrate what nerdiness is not (negation)? Does he explain the etymology (history) of nerdiness? Does the definition change from the beginning to the end of the essay? Rogers uses the strategy of describing distinguishing